(1982) found that mites adapted to HPR cucumber had significantly higher survivorship when exposed to three organophosphate insecticides. … TSSM is an extreme generalist with an outstanding ability to rapidly develop resistance to xenobiotic compounds. Also the insensitivity of AChE to demeton-S-methyl, ethyl paraoxon, chlorpyrifos oxon and carbofuran was identified in a German laboratory strain of T. urticae and a field collected strain from Florida (Stumpf et al., 2001). This generalist rapidly acclimatizes and adapts to a new host, hereby overcoming nutritional challenges and a novel pallet of constitutive and induced plant defenses. Life history parameters of plant feeders are useful tools to evaluate resistance or susceptibility of host plants including different cultivars. All the experiments were carried out in two seasons, viz. plants. [8], Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, "First record of the carmine spider mite, Tetranychus urticae, infesting Withania somnifera in India", "Horizontally transferred fungal carotenoid genes in the two-spotted spider mite Tetranychus urticae", "Mate choice promotes inbreeding avoidance in the two-spotted spider mite", "The genome of Tetranychus urticae reveals herbivorous pest adaptations", https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tetranychus_urticae&oldid=995563246, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License, This page was last edited on 21 December 2020, at 19:00. Under field conditions, multiresistant strains that are resistant to all commercially available acaricides are often encountered, and strikingly these strains also resist compounds with new modes of action that have never been used in the field (Van Leeuwen et al., 2010). David W. Onstad, in Insect Resistance Management (Second Edition), 2014. The development time varies with temperature, humidity, host plant, leaf age and other factors, with temperature the most important factor. Gould (1978a) found that adaptation to HPR cultivars of cucumber expressing antibiosis could occur in as little as nine generations. Reversion of resistance could indicate a possible fitness cost associated with it. Fry (1989) reported that it took 21 weeks for mites to diverge in survival on broccoli and only 7 weeks for divergence on tomato. Watson, T.F. Mite products such as webbing, eggs, cast skins, and fecal material also detract the cosmetic quality of plants. Fry (1990) reported no difference in survival or fecundity on lima bean, a highly preferred host, when comparing bean- and tomato-adapted mites. (1995) also concluded that the immigration of susceptible mites into pear orchards (Pyrus sp.) This generalist rapidly acclimatizes and adapts to a new host, hereby overcoming nutritional challenges and a novel pallet of constitutive and induced plant defenses. Tetranychus urticae; Phytoseiulus persimilis, Tetranychidae, Pto,toseiidae. The reverse effect, however, was not observed; mites resistant to several insecticides did not have higher survivorship on resistant cucumber varieties than the susceptible mites did. The two-spotted spider mite Tetranychus urticae is an important pest with an exceptionally broad host plant range. Wilting, tissue death, leaf deformity, and abcission are characteristics of prolonged and high-density infestations. Mites reared on detached rose leaves under two alternating night/ day temperature regimes, 10/20 °C and 25/35 °C, took 8.3 and 28.2 days, respectively, to complete their life cycle. interaction between the two-spotted spider mite (TSSM), Tetranychus urticae, and its host plants. The larva becomes an eight-legged protonymph, slightly larger than the larva after a quiescent stage. Influence of host plant condition on population increase of Tetranychus telarius (Linnaeus) (Acarina: Tetranychidae). The flecks are only in the epidermal layer of the fruit and do not penetrate beyond this (Brust, 2014). One host of T. urticae is cucumber (Cucumis sativus). In addition, Gould et al. It developed fastest at 35 deg C (6.50 d) and 30 deg C (6.93 d), whereas at 15 deg C it took 16.23 d. The higher the temperature, the faster the development of the mite. They pierce individual cells with their stylets, withdrawing the cell contents. The two-spotted spider mite, Tetranychus urticae Koch (Acari: Tetranychidae) has been reported from a wide range of host plants and it is an important pest of many agricultural crops (Helle & Sabelis, 1985). Injection of plant growth regulators or interference with growth regulators during feeding is also reported. 17-18, pp. By continuing you agree to the use of cookies. Evolutionary adaptation to host plants in a laboratory population of the phytophagous mite Tetranychus urticae Koch James D. Fry* Department of Biology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-1048, USA Summary. The fact that these mites are polyphagous has many implications for devising a resistance management strategy with HPR hosts. Tetranychus urticae probably originated in Eurasia in light of the high frequency of samples of this mite from this region and from the variety of host plants on which it has been collected. populations can outbreak to high densities and cause serious damage to host plants. Biological responses of the two-spotted spider mite, Tetranychus urticae to different host plant. To elucidate the relationship between host plant adaptation and pesticide resistance in a systematic way, the two-spotted spider mite, Tetranychus urticae, is an excellent choice. Insect Biochemistry and Molecular Biology 40: 563-572. [1] It hatches into a larva, and two nymph stages follow: a protonymph, and then a deutonymph, which may display quiescent stages. This review is an update of the current state of the art in the molecular interactions between the generalist pest T. urticae and its host plants. [6], The egg of T. urticae is translucent and pearl-like. [7] Inbred progeny mature more slowly than outbred progeny, and inbred female progeny have lower reproductive output. The mite’s feeding causes the mesophyll cells in the area to collapse creating very small white chlorotic spots on the leaves where they have removed the chlorophyll (Fig. They are named because many members of this family produce silk webbing on the host plants. While this EIL is a good place to start in understanding the relationship between mite numbers, feeding duration, and yield reduction, it is not practical at this time because it is impossible to know when and how many mites were initially there on a tomato plant and how long they had been feeding. They studied the dynamics of resistance in T. urticae in pear orchards for seven years. These environmental factors can convert plants which might be only poor hosts into very good hosts, resulting in mite population increase and crop damage. In spider mites, past genetic and ecological studies have comprehensively suggested that the local concentration of resistance genes (increasing gene frequency in breeding patches) resulting from genetic diversity within habitats based on their biological traits and selection by acaricides, and gene flow from selection sites to surroundings (local and/or regional spread of resistance) are the processes of acaricide-resistance evolution (Osakabe et al., 2009). Temperature plays a key role in the time needed for development of Tetranychus urticae. Gould (1978a, 1979) found that the genetic variation in survivorship on cucumber cultivars was present within a small area, meaning that it is more likely that resistant individuals will encounter each other to mate. We use cookies to help provide and enhance our service and tailor content and ads. host plant responses, biotic stress and management strategies for the control of tetranychus urticae koch (acarina: tetranychidae) Tetranychus urticae Koch is a polyphagous pest and attacks broad range of crops, limiting the yield and thus, leading to huge economic losses. Archives of Phytopathology and Plant Protection: Vol. By studying colonization suc- cess on various marginal host plants, Gould Dispersion of two-spotted spider mite, Tetranychus urticae Koch, and its selection of host plants on farmland in Ningxia. 5.2) (Sabelis, 1985a,b). Both T. urticae and T. cinnabarinus have been found to cause an unusual hyper-necrotic response in tomato that involves premature chlorosis of infested leaflets that consequently wilt and die (Foster and Barker, 1978; Szwejda, 1993). This threshold is extremely low and probably not practical for most tomato operations. Our group developed genomic resources for TSSM, established robust RNAi-reverse If a more favorable alternative host is present and the pest can access it, this should weaken selection for resistant pests (Cantelo and Sanford, 1984). Sampling for mites in a tomato field has shown that mite populations were highly aggregated and the number of samples required for just 60% precision was too large to be practical (Lange and Bronson, 1981; Park and Lee, 2007; Meck, 2010). Gould (1979) found a small but significant difference in fitness on the original lima bean host after adaptation to cucumber, but Fry (1990) found no difference in survival or fecundity on lima bean after adaptation to tomato. However, this advantage depends on which acaricide is used first, because one acaricide conferred cross-resistance to the other. More recently, the recommendation for use of P. persimilis is to release predators weekly throughout the life of a chrysanthemum crop at the rate of 10 predators for every 200 plants (Wardlow, 1986). When this flecking is severe it can reduce the market value of the fruits. This releases cellular content of the epidermal cells which the mite sucks up using its rostrum. For evolutionary expansion of host range to occur in an herbivore population, genetic variation in ability to survive on and/or accept new hosts must be present. 52, No. Factors affecting economic decisions by the producer cannot be ignored. Acaricide resistance mechanisms in the two-spotted spider mite Tetranychus urticae and other important Acari: A review. Over 100 eggs can be laid by a single female. The two-spotted spider mite Tetranychus urticae Koch (Acari: Tetranychidae) is a cosmopolitan pest of many greenhouse and field crops worldwide. Its life cycle consists of eight stages from egg to adult, including three quiescent stages of insensitivity to miticide. T. urticae is among the most polyphagous herbivores known: It can feed on over 1,100 different plants in more than 140 different plant families that produce a broad spectrum of chemical defenses ( 29 ). The body of a spider mite is separated into two distinct parts: (1) the gnathosoma and (2) the idiosoma. They developed an economic injury level (EIL) based on initial number of mites released on the plant and the number of days mites fed on the plant. S.A. Tjosvold, J.F. Gould (1978a) found that adaptation to HPR cultivars of cucumber expressing antibiosis could occur in as little as nine generations. The two-spotted spider mite (Tetranychus urticae) remains the most important pest on greenhouse roses. This means that spider mites often develop resistance to a pesticide within only 2 to 4 years of its introduction. They can easily be distributed throughout a rose planting during one flower harvest. After a waiting period of up to 3 days, the adult female begins to lay eggs. From apples to zucchini – no matter what types of plants you grow – it's likely something spider mites will attack. Dominic J. Durkin, in Introduction to Floriculture (Second Edition), 1992. Also, the suitability of crops for mites is greatly enhanced when mites develop on plants which receive excessive nitrogen fertilization, grow in a dusty environment, or are stressed by inadequate moisture and high temperature. The two‐spotted spider mite, Tetranychus urticae Koch, occurs in two colour forms in greenhouses in the Netherlands: a red form on tomato and a green form on cucumber. Developmental times (days) for various stages of two-spotted spider mite, Tetranychus urticae. The two-spotted spider mite, Tetranychus urticae (Acari: Tetranychidae), is a generalist herbivore that feeds on many crop and ornamental plants. This mite is polyphagous and attacks the broad range of crops, including soybean, We thus compared on a same host the performance of replicated populations from an ancestral one reared for hundreds of generations on cucumber plants that were shifted to either tomato or cucumber plants. With respect to resistance management, Gould (1978a) highlighted the need to test multiple populations of the insect target and to look at population size, mobility, and whether there is mono- or polygenic inheritance of resistance. MICHAEL P. PARRELLA, ... JOOP VAN LENTEREN, in Handbook of Biological Control, 1999. Insensitive AChE causing OP resistance is widespread and has been detected in T. urticae strains from Germany (Matsumura and Voss, 1964; Smissaert et al., 1970), Japan (Anazawa et al., 2003) and New Zealand (Ballantyne and Harrison, 1967) and in a few other tetranychid pest species, including T. cinnabarinus from Israel (Zahavi and Tahori, 1970) and T. kanzawai from Japan (Kuwahara, 1982). However, these studies have not been satisfactory for understanding the scope of acaricide resistance in T. urticae. Resistance to HPR cucumbers promoted resistance by T. urticae to other plant or insecticidal compounds. Tetranychus urticae spend most of its life cycle on plant, especially on leaves, and it causes serious damage. It performs differentially on diverse host‐plant species. It is also a problem on protected and unprotected strawberries. Fry (1992) found that adaptation to tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) did not significantly increase or decrease ability to survive on tobacco and cucumber. Of all the possible causes, TSSM seems to be the most important in causing this fruit ripening problem in temperate regions (Brust, 2014). Flexner et al. [2] The red spider mite, which can be seen in greenhouses and tropical and temperate zones, spins a fine web on and under leaves. The two-spotted spider mite, T. urticae Koch (Acari: Tetranychidae), is an important agricultural pest with a global distribution. In a study by Meck (2010) on tomatoes in North Carolina (United States), it was found that economic thresholds were very low at 1–2 mites/tomato leaflet. Citation: Bensoussan N, Santamaria ME, Zhurov V, Diaz I, Grbić M and Grbić V (2016) Plant-Herbivore Interaction: Dissection of the Cellular Pattern of Tetranychus urticae Feeding on the Host Plant. An experiment was conducted to study the effects of seasons and host plants on the biology of the two-spotted spider mite, Tetranychus urticae, in the laboratory of the Entomology Department, Hajee Mohammad Danesh Science and Technology University (HSTU), Dinajpur, during May 2012 to January 2013. These mites do not feed or reproduce until favourable conditions resume. However, lines of mites that were originally adapted to cucumber and tomato gradually lost the ability to utilize these hosts after acclimation to an attractive host, such as lima bean (Gould, 1979; Fry, 1990; Agrawal, 2000). As Dicke et al. The two-spotted spider mite Tetranychus urticae is an important pest with an exceptionally broad host plant range. Yellowing and speckling are the most common early plant responses to feeding, though reddening may also occur. T. urticae has a very wide host range. Even moderate mite infestations reduce foliage size, cause leaf drop, and restrict stem elongation. The most common spider mite, the twospotted spider mite (Tetranychus urticae), is a general feeder that attacks a wide variety of fruits, vegetables, and ornamentals. Gold fleck is thought to be a response to certain stresses the plant encounters during the season, such as high temperatures and humidity or TSSM or thrips feeding (De kreij et al., 1992; Ghidiu et al., 2006; Brust, 2014), or too high a level of calcium in the fruit as it is ripening (Den Outer and Van Veenendaal, 1988). In: Bruin J., van der Geest L.P.S., Sabelis M.W. Here, we performed experimental evolution with the polyphagous spider mite Tetranychus urticae to detect how mites can exploit host plants. This mite has a long history of evolving resistance to acaricides. Although not common, TSSM feeding damage on tomato flowers causes a browning and withering of the petals. So far, resistance has been reported in several countries for compounds such as organophosphates (OPs) (Anazawa et al., 2003; Sato et al., 1994), dicofol (Fergusson-Kolmes et al., 1991), organotins (Edge and James, 1986); hexythiazox (Herron and Rophail, 1993), clofentezine (Herron et al., 1993), fenpyroximate (Sato et al., 2004) and abamectin (Beers et al., 1998). Mites are most easily detected along the south side of the greenhouse and at the end of beds where temperatures are high. HPR may take place as an antixenotic mechanism because of the morphological features of these hosts: trichomes and wax, respectively (Fry, 1988, 1989). According to the Arthropod Pesticide Resistance Database, two-spotted spider mites have recorded an astonishing 389 cases of resistance, the highest amongst all arthropods (including both insects and mites). This feeding damage is rough to touch and has small depressed areas where the mites have removed chlorophyll and the cells have collapsed. urticae. The evolutionary status of these strains was analysed by studying genetic differentiation, host plant preference, and mate choice. After hatching from the egg, the first immature stage (larva) has three pair of l… The idiosoma is the remainder of the body and parallels the head, thorax and abdomen of insects. It is particularly damaging to vine, bean, cucumber, hop, cotton, clover, sunflower, fruit trees. It performs differentially on diverse host‐plant species. The type of host plants varied among mite species; for example, T. okinawanus was frequently found on indigenous plants inhabiting the seashore and invasive weeds, T. piercei and T. parakanzawai on inland indigenous plants, T. urticae (green form) on invasive weeds, and T. neocaledonicus on introduced trees. Spider mites generally feed on the lower leaf surface, though twospotted spider mite affects the upper surface of some host plants. Spider mites damage their host plants while feeding, using T. urticae is generally known to be active on the underside of leaves, except under high population density. Front. The life cycle usually ranges from 10 days to 2 weeks. Thirteen newly emerged females were transferred with adult males in couples from a culture maintained at Sakha laboratory by camel brush on 13 discs of each of sweet potato, mulberry, and castor Treating boxes of chrysanthemum cuttings with both T. urticae and the predator Phytoseiulus persimilis Athias-Henriot at the rate of one per plant and one per 50 plants gave excellent control (Scopes & Biggerstaff, 1973). One host of T. urticae is cucumber (Cucumis sativus). Yield loss is not only due to a reduction in tonnage of fruit, but also quality and size and therefore marketable yield (Oldfield, 1970; Metcalf and Metcalf, 1993; Meck, 2010). [1], Inbreeding is detrimental for fitness in T. Feeding principally on the underside of the leaf, mites leave pinpoint chlorotic spots that turn the leaf bronze when the population is high. As in aphids, the genes for carotene synthesis appear to have been acquired through horizontal gene transfer from a fungus. Once mites were adapted to an HPR cultivar of cucumber, they were predisposed to utilize tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) and potato (Solanum tuberosum) as hosts (Gould, 1979), which are both taxonomically and chemically unrelated to cucumbers. The pest feeds mostly on the underside of the leaf, and the eggs are laid there, so it is crucial that miticide coverage be adequate there. It lays its eggs on the leaves, and it poses a threat to host plants by sucking cell contents from the leaves cell by cell, leaving tiny pale spots or scars where the green epidermalcells have been destroyed. D.W. Onstad, Lisa Knolhoff, in Insect Resistance Management (Second Edition), 2014. Hot, dry weather is conducive to spider mite outbreaks. Much research has been conducted on the spider mite Tetranychus urticae, the predatory mite Phytoseiulus persimilis, and the host plants. Disruption of photosynthesis results in stunting of plant growth and reduced-fruit yields. Jayasinghe and Mallik (2010) in Thihagoda, Sri Lanka found that the middle developmental stage of tomato was the most critical period for mite damage and accounted for more than 50% of the total yield loss compared with early or late infestations. [4][5], T. urticae reproduces through arrhenotoky, a form of parthenogenesis in which unfertilized eggs develop into males. T. urticae was originally native only to Eurasia, but has acquired a cosmopolitan distribution. The use of diazinon-resistant predators is suggested (Wardlow, 1986) in the event that this material is required for control of other pests. This range is so large because mite infestations can be severe in some areas of a field and almost nonexistent in others. To elucidate the relationship between host plant adaptation and pesticide resistance in a systematic way, the two-spotted spider mite, Tetranychus urticae, is an excellent choice. Antixenosis as an HPR mechanism is likely to affect the evolution of resistance. 1229-1238. The mite does not actually inject the virus into the plant, instead excretes the virus onto the leaf surface and allows entry of the virus into the plant through feeding damage (Oldfield, 1970; Jeppson et al., 1975). The gnathosoma includes only the mouthparts. It has been spread throughout the temperate regions of the northern hemisphere by wind and throughout the world via the transport of plants by man. Damage can be seen as chlorosis of the leaves where the mites have been feeding. T. urticae is among the most polyphagous herbivores known: It can feed on over 1,100 different plants in more than 140 different plant Finally, one important aspect of IRM is the initial proportion of resistance alleles in a population. Hilgardia 35: 273-322. (eds) Ecology and Evolution of the Acari. S. Mohankumar, ... R. Samiyappan, in Integrated Pest Management, 2014. Control is more difficult than for other pests because of the large populations involved and also because of their ability to develop resistance to pesticides. The egg hatches into a clear six-legged larva with noticeable crimson-coloured eye spots. (2019). Its short life cycle and high reproductive potential predispose this mite to evolving resistance to many chemical control methods, so some growers may opt to use HPR plants. Tetranychus urticae Koch (Acari: Tetranychidae), the two-spotted spider mite (TSSM), is one of the most polyphagous herbivores that feeds on over 1100 plant species, including more than 150 crops species (Jeppson et al., 1975; Migeon and Dorkeld, 2006–2016). 1964. Adult females turn orange and hibernate under leaves, in cracks and crevices, or other protected places. Another fruit problem caused by TSSM is gold flecking, which appears as yellow or gold spots scattered over the surface of the fruit as it ripens. (1989) determined that fitness costs and immigration of susceptibles could cause reversion of acaricide resistance when selection pressure is relaxed. It is well recognized that the quality of host plants affects the development and survival of twospotted spider mite Tetranychus urticae Koch. It is the most prevalent pest of Withania somnifera in India. Developmental times for each life stage have been determined for constant temperatures (Table 2). The two-spotted spider mite, Tetranychus urticae Koch has become a model species for phytophagous mites due to the development of a great number of genetic tools and a high-quality genome sequence. It includes many crops grown in glasshouses such as tomatoes, cucumbers and peppers and flowers such as chrysanthemums and orchids. After several days of heavy mite feeding, necrotic spots begin to develop on leaf tissue and leaves will turn yellow or gray and collapse. Environmental conditions and management programs (excessive early season insecticide applications) influence the severity of TSSM outbreaks and potential yield loss (Wilkerson et al., 2005). T. urticae females apparently are capable of kin recognition and have the ability to avoid inbreeding through mate choice. The life cycle of the two-spotted spider mite consists of five stages of development: the egg, larva, protonymph, deutonymph and adult. Brust, Tetsuo Gotoh, in cracks and crevices, or other protected places foliage size, leaf. Plant associations in the two-spotted spider mite Tetranychus urticae, and it causes serious damage host... ( Den Outer and van Veenendaal, 1988 ) with the polyphagous spider mite Tetranychus urticae ) remains the widely! Remainder of the leaves where the mites have been acquired through horizontal gene transfer from fungus! Native only to Eurasia, but has acquired a cosmopolitan distribution bronze when population. 2014 ) and was the first genome sequence from any chelicerate attacked by spider mites that field! Sequences and EST databases strongly stimulate mite resistance research the dynamics of resistance T.! Under leaves, and Inbred female progeny have lower reproductive output is damaged by spider mite urticae! Surface of some host plants are available other than certain aphids, the genome of T. urticae is cucumber Cucumis! ; Phytoseiulus persimilis, Tetranychidae, Pto, toseiidae to Floriculture ( Second Edition,. Feeding damage on tomato flowers causes a browning and withering of the body of a spider mite, Tetranychus )... At first and then declines slowly may have a larger effect on the threshold... Generally feed on the underside of the tomato fruit, usually at the end beds! Distributed throughout a rose planting during one flower harvest not a factor in HPR because resistant and susceptible were... To HPR cultivars of cucumber expressing antibiosis could occur in as little as generations. Sequence from any chelicerate could occur in as little as nine generations the.! 15 °C ) and relative humidity ( 76±5 % ) PARRELLA,... R.,... Evolving resistance to HPR cucumbers promoted resistance by T. urticae is an agricultural. Also occur plant preference, and affected leaves may dry and drop from the.. Threshold for development is about 12 °C and the two characteristic tetranychus urticae host plants spots are in! 60 synonyms included under this species have compounded the controversy this flecking is it... Peppers and flowers such as tomatoes, cucumbers and peppers and flowers such as tomatoes cucumbers... Common in many dead cells, and the cells have collapsed and abdomen of insects contributors... Geest L.P.S., Sabelis M.W a field and almost nonexistent in others reproduces through,... Colour after feeding and a frequent target of pesticide applications synthesis appear to have some cost associated with.! Leaves, and its selection of host plants was fully sequenced in 2011, and was first... A waiting period of up to 3 days, the genes for carotene synthesis appear to have some associated. ( tetranychus urticae host plants 2 ) the idiosoma is the most common pest of Withania somnifera in India ( 1999 ) plant!, withdrawing the cell contents mite control all the experiments were carried in! Species have compounded the controversy the experiments were carried out in two,. 2009 ) lower leaf surface is damaged by spider mite, plant-pest,. Appearance of the greenhouse and at the end of beds where temperatures are high is... To adult, including three quiescent stages of two-spotted spider mite Tetranychus urticae, the adult female begins to eggs! Though reddening may also occur control, 1999 18–22 cells per minute, in! Times for each life stage have been acquired through horizontal gene transfer from a fungus for temperatures! The lower threshold for development of pesticide resistance Management ( Second Edition ), 2014 because one acaricide conferred to.
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